“Dear Mother and Father, When this letter reaches you I will be beyond the veil of sorrow. I will be in heaven with the angels…I am sentenced to be hanged for the trouble that happened in Houston, Texas. Altho (sic) I am not guilty of the crime that I am accused of, but mother, it is God’s will that I go now and in this way….”

In the wake of the largest murder trial in United States history, United States v. William C. Nesbit, thirteen Black men, including the previously quoted Thomas Hawkins, were sentenced to death by hanging with no opportunity for appeal. A white soldier from the 19th company recounted the gruesome scene stating, “The unlucky thirteen were lined up. The conductors took their places and the men for the last time heard the command, “March!” Thirteen ropes dangled from the crossbeam of the scaffold, a chair in front of every rope, six on one side, seven on the other. As the ropes were being fastened about the men’s necks, big (Pvt. Frank) Johnson’s voice suddenly broke into a hymn – “Lord, I’m comin’ home” – and the others joined him. The eyes of even the hardest of us were wet.”

Due to the United States active involvement in World War I, the brutal executions were justified under the Articles of War. Additionally, forty-one more soldiers received life-sentences, while four were given a lighter sentence, and five were fully acquitted. The charges against them were disobeying orders, aggravated assault, murder, and mutiny. Although each man maintained their innocence and submitted a not guilty plea, 169 prosecution witnesses provided testimony, compared to twenty-nine for the defense. However, the testimony did not provide conclusive evidence to indict any man, due to forceful coercion, the promise of immunity, and general unreliability. Predictably, this injustice elicited an impassioned and fiery response from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and investigative journalist Martha Gruening wrote of her findings in the NAACP-funded Crisis newspaper. In the introduction of her article, Gruening highlights police brutality as the primary reason for the 1917 Houston Riot. She then delineates the lack of arms amongst Black military police and the lax discipline amongst the ranks as contributing causes for the explosion of violence on the scorching hot summer day.

Gruening correctly observes that the events of the riot were the culmination of simmering racial tensions, sparked by the influx of Black soldiers into Houston. The 24th Infantry, composed of 654 Black men and their all-white officer group, arrived at Camp Logan on July 28th, 1917, one of the thirty-two training facilities across the United States erected in order to expedite military training. Although the majority of these men were raised in the South under Jim Crow, they expected more equitable treatment as servicemen, and many refused to comply with the racist laws. Unsurprisingly, this civil disobedience was met with verbal and physical harassment from the white community, as well as the notoriously racist police force. Black soldiers were arrested regularly for minor violations, and were referred to by racial slurs on a frequent basis, both by the police and the white soldiers and construction workers of their Camp. Ultimately, the mutual hostility reached a fever-pitch on the 23rd of August, in response to an unsubstantiated rumor involving a respected soldier. In the morning hours of the brutal day, officer Lee Sparks, known for his blatant hatred for minorities, and his partner Rufus Daniels entered the home of a minimally clothed Black woman, searching for a man accused of playing dice in the alleyway. Unable to find the man, they arrested the woman, refusing to allow her the opportunity to clothe, cursing and striking her, and accusing her of hiding the fugitive. Private Edwards, a soldier with the 24th Infantry, observed the scene and approached the officers, inquiring about the nature of her arrest, and if he could provide her with clothing. The officers immediately beat him to the ground with their weapons and arrested him.

Later that afternoon Corporal Baltimore, a military policeman from the same unit, approached the officers to question the arrest of his subordinate, as was his duty. Officer Sparks instantaneously opened fire on the Corporal, and being unarmed, he fled the scene. Eventually, he was apprehended and taken to the police station, and although he was subsequently released, a rumor spread to the Camp that he had been shot and killed by the officer. In an emotional response to the unjust events of the day, a group of soldiers recruited others in the unit to march with them to the police station with the intention to free Baltimore, if he was alive, and kill every member of the Houston police they faced. While Major Kneeland Snow and his officers were collecting all of the loose rifles and ammunition around the camp with the hope of quelling any violence, a soldier screamed that a white mob was approaching them. A group of 100 armed soldiers then began a two hour march to the jailhouse, killing fifteen white people, including four policemen. After the group killed Captain Joseph Mattes of the Illinois Guard, mistaking him for a police officer, the men dispersed under the cover of darkness, and the supposed leader of the riot, First Sergeant Vida Henry, was found dead of a self-inflicted gunshot wound. After the startling events of the 23rd, martial law was implemented on the 24th, and by the 25th, the Battalion was sent back to New Mexico.

Seven years later, the City of Houston took ownership of the land, and created a park to serve as a memorial to the soldiers who lost their lives in World War I. Notably, the memorial does not feature the Black soldiers with the 24th Infantry, whose lives were cut short due to an explosive environment, in which they had no choice but to reside. This erasure was ultimately rectified in 2017, as a group of descendants from both the soldiers and Houston police organized a rededication ceremony, complete with a historical marker to acknowledge the centennial anniversary of the events at Camp Logan. Current Houston Mayor Sylvester Turner spoke at the event, calling for “good people of all backgrounds to speak against hate and stand united”. Unfortunately, less than twenty-four hours later, the monument was desecrated with a smear of red paint, and one of the darkest moments in the history of Houston race relations was once again cast off into the shadows of obscurity.

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Nestled in the midst of skyscrapers and the hustle and bustle of the busy metropolitan of Houston, Texas, lies an inconspicuous, hidden historical gem, Antioch Missionary Baptist Church. The beauty of this iconic church captures the observer’s eye, but so should its impressive history. The declaration of the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing those enslaved in the Confederacy, was made by President Abraham Lincoln on September 22, 1862, and declared to go into effect on January 1, 1863. However, it would not be read this far south in Texas until 1865, when it was read in Galveston on June 19, known today as ‘Juneteenth’. Once the enslaved citizens of Houston were freed, a select few began this first African American church in Houston. It was originally located at 313 Robin Street as part of the Fourth Ward, also known as Freedmen’s Town, a community of freed men created after the close of the Civil War. Today, its modern address is 500 Clay Street and it is still used for worship in the city of Houston today.

Prior to the emancipation of slaves, only two churches in Houston were known to have allowed enslaved men and women to attend their services: the Methodist church and the Baptist church. Once freed, two white missionaries, Reverend W. C. Crane and Reverend J. B. Link, from the local First Baptist Church and German Baptist Church would assist a handful of men and women to form their own church, in the back pews.

The use and attendance of these two churches would only last approximately seven months as renovations of the host churches, First Baptist Church and German Baptist Church, would cause complications for the recently freed black attendees to continue at the back. This would cause seven African American members to initiate the beginnings of what would later be called Antioch Baptist Church. They gathered under a self-assembled “Brush Arbor” at the modern-day location of Rusk and Bagby Street on the edge of the Buffalo Bayou, which is about six blocks north of the modern-day location of the church. Within a years’ time, this makeshift church would build a simple one-story rectangular building to hold their worship in, known as “Baptist Hill”. The church would move to its current location in 1873.

Itinerant preacher and black missionary, Reverend I. S. Campbell of the Northern Baptist Missionary Association, was dispatched to these newly freed congregants in 1867 to provide spiritual guidance and training. Along the way he encountered John Henry (Jack) Yates, a former African American slave who was capable in reading the Bible, leading prayer and hymns. After being ordained by Campbell and Elder J. J. Ryanhart, this godsend would become the first pastor of the Antioch Missionary Baptist Church. Attendance would dramatically increase under Yates’ leadership, causing the need for a new, larger location for the congregants to meet. He would oversee the construction of the current church, but would leave in 1891 over a dispute on borrowing money to complete the remodeling and enlargement of the church.

While the status of being the first African American Church in the Houston area is monumental enough, Antioch Missionary Baptist Church has also been significant in assisting in the success of its community members of Freedmen’s Town. It not only aided in the spiritual needs of its community, but also in the economic, educational, and social needs. Antioch was active in the promotion of newly freed slaves’ education. In 1885, together with Northern Baptist missionaries Miss Peck and Miss Dysart, Antioch began the first private school for freedmen. Known as the Houston Baptist Academy, and later as the Houston College for Negros, these would be the predecessors to the current Texas Southern University in Houston today. At the academy students would learn reading, writing, and arithmetic. They would also have the opportunity to learn specific trades. This allowed the students to start their own businesses within the community. It would continue to support the education of African Americans in the Houston community throughout the 1920s. Pastor Yates ensured that through the church, recently freed slaves could also learn how to buy homes, pay taxes, vote, and raise gardens.

In 1882, along with Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church, members of Antioch Missionary Baptist Church purchased Emancipation Park, Houston’s first black park. It was utilized as a place for blacks to voice their civic concerns and host social gatherings, as well as a park for their children to play safely. The church began the annual Juneteenth celebration in this park, which is still held to this day. This park is still located in Houston’s Third Ward.

As time progressed, the Antioch building was expanded and renovations were made. New programs were created, such as youth outreach programs and Vacation Bible Schools. While the historical significance of the church continued to grow, its true desire to reach souls for Jesus was never lost. In 1931, under Reverend Thomas J. Goodall, Jr. many modern updates were made and the land adjacent to the church was purchased. Known today as Antioch Park, the iconic sign “Jesus Saves” was placed and still exists today.

As the city of Houston grew to the metropolis it is today, all of Freedmen’s Town, north of interstate 45 slowly gave way to newer and bigger structures. Antioch Missionary Baptist Church now stands as the only building representative of the Fourth Ward north of the interstate, as of 2012. Its iconic Gothic features and “Jesus Saves” sign stands as a testament to the achievements of the formerly enslaved men and women who began a church, not just to service the spiritual needs of blacks in Houston, but also their social, economic, and educational growth. In 1976 the church became the tenth structure to be part of the National Register of Historic Places in Houston. In 1991, the church received international notice as an ethnic icon when Queen Elizabeth II of England visited. Then in 2019, the cultural agency UNESCO of the United Nations listed Antioch Baptist Church as part of their Slave Route Project in the South. Also included in this list, was Emancipation Park.

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Professional baseball began as a collection of company teams in the newly industrialized northeast of the 19th century, and through most of the 20th century the pride of industrial cities often stemmed from the exploits of the local team. Houston, as a city with growing industrial importance, was no different. Although Houston only received a major league team in 1962, the city's relationship with America's game stretches back to the 19th century, and for 33 years Buffalo Stadium served the teams, white and black, professional and semiprofessional, that called Houston home.

Built in 1928 with funding from the St. Louis Cardinals, Houston's Buffalo Stadium stood at the corner of Leeland and Bernard streets (now Cullen Boulevard). The Cardinals purchased an interest in the Houston Buffaloes in 1920 and then provided $400,000 for the 14,000-seat stadium. With covered seats stretching down both the first and third base lines, the new stadium pulled the center of baseball away from Houston's growing downtown and the Fourth Ward where Houston's first ball park, West End Park, was located. To increase attendance, lights and night games came to the park in 1930, and the increased corporate nature of baseball struck Buffalo Stadium in 1953 when it was renamed Busch Stadium. The name change reflected the company's interest in the stadium and team; however, locals remained loyal to the original name. The stadium would see nine Texas League championships, multiple exhibition games with major league teams, an exhibition game with Jackie Robinson's All Stars, and the height and end of black baseball.

Buffalo Stadium entertained the African American citizens of Houston with the games of the Black Buffaloes, the Black Eagles, and their black baseball opponents from around Texas and the country. Most black teams in Texas rented the stadium of their local white counterparts. Black teams using white facilities could only play on weekends when the white team had an away game, but interior team facilities, such as showers, were traditionally off limits. Despite the indignities of segregation, the ability to play in a white stadium allowed black teams to achieve a higher level of play unhampered by uneven surfaces and muddy outfields that plagued other stadiums. After only two seasons the owners of the Black Buffaloes sacrificed the quality of play for a location closer to their customer base and returned the team to West End Park. African Americans who made up much of the Fourth Ward population found it difficult to attend games in the industrial southeast quarter of the city. Black baseball would return to Buffalo Stadium in 1949 with the Negro Texas League Black Eagles. Though the Eagles played some of the best Negro League teams from across the country, the team suffered from low attendance. An import from Newark, New Jersey, the Black Eagles had few local players that could establish a connection to the community, and most African Americans now cheered newly integrated teams.

After the demise of the Black Eagles and the Negro Texas League, the Houston Buffaloes would continue to run the bases of Buffalo Stadium until 1961. In the intervening years African Americans returned to the Buffalo Stadium diamond. The Buffaloes followed the lead of major league baseball and integrated their roster. Even while segregation still ruled in public facilities across Houston, Bob Boyd and Hall of Fame outfielder Willard Brown stepped onto the grass of Buffalo Stadium in 1954 alongside white players. While Brown was wrapping up his career in Houston after a successful career in the Negro Leagues, Boyd used Buffalo Stadium as a training ground for his eventual successful career for the Baltimore Orioles. The arrival of major league baseball in Houston was the end for the Houston Buffaloes and their field. Buffalo Stadium was demolished in 1963, and Houston's next home for baseball, the Astrodome, was fully integrated.

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Two enterprising brothers, Augustus and John Allen, came to Texas from New York in 1832 to make their fortunes through land speculation. After failing to offer enough money for Clopper’s point (present day Morgan’s Point), and hoping to avoid any ownership disputes like the one over nearby Harrisburg, the Allen brothers finally purchased 6,642 acres of land at the junction of Buffalo and White Oak Bayous. They promptly named their fledging town Houston City (very quickly shortened to Houston) after General Sam Houston, the hero of the Battle of San Jacinto. This fantastic promotional move and the Allens' marketing skills soon led to Houston’s population boom, which rose rapidly from approximately 200 residents in 1832 to an astounding 2,073 by 1836.

The Allen brothers had a grand vision for their new town and were confident Houston would become the commercial center of the Gulf Coast. Five days after acquiring the townsite, the Allen brothers ran an advertisement in the Columbia Telegraph and Texas Register stating, “The town of Houston is located at a point on the river which must ever command the trade of the largest and richest portion of Texas, and when the rich lands of the country shall be settled, a trade will flow to it, making it, beyond all doubt, the great interior commercial emporium of Texas.” The forward-thinking Allens also predicted Houston's growing importance to the wider Gulf Coast region, stating in other advertisements, “As the country shall improve rail roads will become in use, and will be extended from this point to the Brazos, and up the same, also from this up to the head waters of San Jacinto . . . and in a few years the whole trade of the upper Brazos will make its way into Galveston Bay through the channel.” These advertisements led directly to the spike in Houston's population, even prompting several additional speculators to travel to the region with hopes of creating the next commercial boom town.

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